Taft James S. Sherman 9 Mar. Woodrow Wilson Thomas R. Marshall Mar. Warren G. Harding 4 Calvin Coolidge Mar. Calvin Coolidge Dawes Mar. Herbert C. Hoover Charles Curtis Mar. Franklin D. Roosevelt John N. Garner Mar. Roosevelt Henry A. Wallace Jan. Roosevelt 4 Harry S. Truman Jan. Harry S. Truman Alben W. Barkley Jan. Dwight D.
Eisenhower Richard M. Nixon Jan. John F. Kennedy 4 Lyndon B. Johnson Jan. Lyndon B. Johnson Hubert H.
Humphrey Jan. Richard M. Nixon Spiro T. Agnew 10 Jan. Nixon 12 Gerald R. Ford 11 Dec. Gerald R. Ford Nelson A. Rockefeller 13 Dec. James Earl Carter Walter F. Mondale Jan. Ronald Reagan George Bush Jan. George Bush Dan Quayle Jan. William J. Clinton Albert Gore Jan. George W. Bush Dick Cheney Jan. Barack H. Obama Joseph R.
Biden, Jr. Donald J. Trump Michael Pence Jan. Joseph R. Kamala D. Harris Jan. They also ridiculed him as being effeminate or a hermaphrodite because of his height and high-pitched voice. Meanwhile, the United States came under pressure from France and Great Britain to take sides in the wars following the French Revolution of Republicans favored republican France, while the Federalists sympathized with Great Britain.
Adams labored to keep the United States out of the great power conflict. These statutes — the Naturalization Act, Alien Act, Alien Enemies Act, and Sedition Act — represent the first instance of an American president placing national security issues and personal reputation before the principles of freedom of speech and of the press.
The laws met with immediate resistance in Republican strongholds and triggered the Virginia Resolution and the Kentucky Resolution Authored by James Madison and Thomas Jefferson , the resolutions questioned the constitutional validity of the legislation. Adams was serving as vice president when the first Congress proposed and adopted the Bill of Rights. Later in life, his views on religion and politics moved closer to those of Jefferson.
Both men espoused Enlightenment attitudes and Unitarian doctrine, but unlike Jefferson, however, Adams was never sanguine that human enlightenment would lead to the end of religious intolerance and oppression. Governmental checks and balances consequently might be the only defense against religiously motivated tyranny. Adams and Jefferson died on the same day, July 4, , the fiftieth anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, to which both men had contributed. This article was originally published in Paul J.
He was a critic of the Stamp Act of , in which the British levied a tax on legal documents, newspapers and playing cards in the North American colonies. Adams also spoke out against the Townshend Acts of , which levied tariffs on goods such as paper, glass and tea that were imported to America. Despite his objection to what he thought was unfair taxation by the British, Adams, a principled man, represented the British soldiers accused of murder in the Boston Massacre of March Adams wanted to ensure that the soldiers—who were charged with firing into an unruly crowd of civilians in Boston and killing five people—received a fair trial.
The Continental Congress served as the government of the 13 American colonies and later the United States, from to In , as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress, Adams nominated George Washington to serve as commander of the colonial forces in the American Revolutionary War , which had just begun. As a congressional delegate, Adams would later nominate Thomas Jefferson to draft the Declaration of Independence which Adams would go on to sign alongside his second cousin, Samuel Adams.
By the early s, Adams was in Europe again, serving in a diplomatic capacity. In , he, along with John Jay and Benjamin Franklin , helped negotiate the Treaty of Paris , which officially ended hostilities between America and Britain. Adams lobbied for the vice presidency and won. In early elections, the president and vice president were elected separately.
Adams took office in March , and his presidency was quickly taken up with foreign affairs. Britain and France were at war, which directly affected American trade. During his tenure, Washington had managed to maintain neutrality, but tensions had escalated by the time Adams became president. In , he sent a delegation to France to negotiate a treaty but the French refused to meet with the delegates, and the French foreign minister, Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Perigord , demanded a large bribe.
An undeclared naval war broke out between the U. Adams squandered his popularity by signing the Alien and Sedition Acts into law in Jefferson and his allies, who called themselves the Democratic-Republicans , assailed these laws, declaring them unconstitutional. Many Americans, having shed one oppressive government, feared that their new government might resort to similar tactics. Although the laws were never abused and, in fact, had built-in expirations, they hurt Adams and helped cost him the election in After his presidency, Adams had a long and productive retirement.
He and his wife lived in Quincy, Massachusetts, and the former president spent the next quarter-century writing columns, books and letters.
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